Vitamins that may be helpful
Arginine alpha-ketoglutarate
Arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (AAKG) is a
compound made from the amino acid L-arginine
and alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) a substance
formed in the body’s energy-generating process. It has been speculated that AAKG may
increase production in muscles of nitric oxide, a substance known to have blood-flow-enhancing
effects. A double-blind study gave trained weight lifters either 4 grams of AAKG or a placebo
three times a day during an eight-week weight-training regimen. AAKG had no effect on body
composition but did improve measures of strength and short-term power
performance.61
Creatine
Creatine (creatine monohydrate) is used in
muscle tissue for the production of phosphocreatine, a factor in the formation of ATP, the
source of energy for muscle contraction and many other functions in the body.62
63 Creatine supplementation increases phosphocreatine levels in muscle, especially
when accompanied by exercise or carbohydrate intake.64 65 It may also
increase exercise-related gains in lean body mass, though it is unclear how much of these
gains represents added muscle tissue and how much is simply water retention.66
Over 40 double-blind or controlled studies have found creatine supplementation (typically
136 mg per pound of body weight per day or 15 to 25 grams per day for five or six days)
improves performance of either single or repetitive bouts of short-duration, high-intensity
exercise lasting under 30 seconds each.67 68 69 70
71 72 73 Examples of this type of exercise include
weightlifting; sprinting by runners, cyclists, or swimmers; and many types of athletic
training regimens for speed and power. About 15 studies did not report enhancement by creatine
of this type of performance. These have been criticized for their small size and other
research design problems, but it is possible that some people, especially elite athletes, are
less likely to benefit greatly from creatine supplementation.74
Fewer studies have investigated whether creatine supplementation benefits continuous high-
intensity exercise lasting 30 seconds or longer. Five controlled studies have found creatine
beneficial for this type of exercise,75 but one study found no benefit on
performance of a military obstacle course run.76 Most studies of endurance
performance have found no advantage of creatine supplementation, except perhaps for non-weight
bearing exercise such as cycling. 77 78 79
Long-term use of creatine supplementation is typically done using smaller daily amounts (2
to 5 grams per day) after an initial loading period of several days with 20 grams per day.
Very little research has been done to investigate the exercise performance effects of
long-term creatine supplementation. One study reported that long-term creatine supplementation
improved sprint performance.80 Four controlled long-term trials using untrained
women,81 trained men,82 or untrained older adults found that creatine
improved gains made in strength and lean body mass from weight-training programs.83
84 However, two controlled trials found no advantage of long-term creatine
supplementation in weight-training football players.85 86
Creatine supplementation appears to increase body weight and lean body mass or fat-free
mass, but these measurements do not distinguish between muscle growth and increased water
content of muscle.87 88 A few double-blind studies using more specific
muscle measurements have been done and found that combining creatine supplementation with
strength training over several weeks does produce greater increases in muscle size compared
with strength training alone.89 90 91
Multivitamin-mineral supplements
Many athletes do not eat an optimal diet, especially when they are trying to control their
weight while training strenuously.92 These athletes may experience micronutrient
deficiencies that, even if marginal, could affect performance or cause health
problems.93 94 95 96 However, athletes who receive
recommended daily allowances of vitamins and minerals from their diet do not appear to benefit
from additional multivitamin-mineral
supplements with increased performance.97 98 99
Very little research has been done to evaluate the ergogenic effects of most vitamins or
minerals other than those discussed in this article. Supplementation with selenium (180 mcg per day for 10 weeks) had no effect
on the results of endurance training in one double-blind trial.100 Vanadyl sulfate,
a form of vanadium that may have an insulin-like action, was given to weight-training
athletes in a double-blind trial, using 225 mcg per pound of body weight per day, but no
effect on body composition was seen after 12 weeks, and effects on strength were
inconsistent.101 The importance of other individual vitamins and minerals is
discussed elsewhere in this section.
Antioxidants
Most research has demonstrated that strenuous exercise increases production of harmful
substances called free radicals, which can
damage muscle tissue and result in inflammation and muscle soreness. Exercising in cities or
smoggy areas also increases exposure to free radicals. Antioxidants, including vitamin C and vitamin E, neutralize free radicals before they can
damage the body, so antioxidants may aid in exercise recovery. Regular exercise increases the
efficiency of the antioxidant defense system, potentially reducing the amount of supplemental
antioxidants that might otherwise be needed for protection. However, at least theoretically,
supplements of antioxidant vitamins may be beneficial for older or untrained people or
athletes who are undertaking an especially vigorous training protocol or athletic
event.102 103
Placebo-controlled research, some of it double-blind, has shown that taking 400 to 3,000 mg
of vitamin C per day for several days before and after intense exercise may reduce pain and
speed up muscle strength recovery.104 105 106 However, taking
vitamin C only after such exercise was not effective in another double-blind
study.107 While some research has reported that vitamin E supplementation in the
amount of 800 to 1,200 IU per day reduces biochemical measures of free radical activity and
muscle damage caused by strenuous exercise,108 109 110
several studies have not found such benefits,111 112 113
114 and no research has investigated the effect of vitamin E on performance-related
measures of strenuous exercise recovery. A combination of 90 mg per day of coenzyme Q10 and a very small amount of vitamin E did
not produce any protective effects for marathon runners in one double-blind
trial,115 while in another double-blind trial a combination of 50 mg per day of zinc and 3 mg per day of copper significantly reduced evidence of post-exercise
free radical activity.116
In most well-controlled studies, exercise performance has not been shown to improve
following supplementation with vitamin C, unless a deficiency exists, as might occur in
athletes with unhealthy or irrational eating patterns.117 118 Similarly,
vitamin E has not benefited exercise performance, 119 120 except
possibly at high altitudes. 121 122
Alkalinizing agents
The use of alkalinizing agents, such as sodium
bicarbonate, sodium citrate, and phosphate salts (potassium phosphate, sodium acid
phosphate, and tribasic sodium phosphate) to enhance athletic performance is designed to
neutralize the acids produced during exercise that may interfere with energy production or
muscle contraction.123 Some double-blind studies, though not all, have found that
sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate typically improves exercise performance for events
lasting either 1 to10 minutes or 30 to 60 minutes.124 125 126
127 128 129 130 131 132 The
amounts used are 115 to 180 mg of sodium bicarbonate or 135 to 225 mg of sodium citrate per
pound of body weight. These amounts are dissolved in at least two cups of fluid and are taken
either as a single ingestion at least one hour before exercise or divided into smaller amounts
and taken over several hours before exercise. Performance during periods of less than one
minute or between 10 and 30 minutes is not improved by taking alkalinizing
agents.133 134 135 136 137 Sodium
citrate may be preferable to sodium bicarbonate because it causes less gastrointestinal
upset.138 Another alkalinizing agent, phosphate salts, has been investigated
primarily as an endurance performance enhancer, with very inconsistent results.139
140
DHEA
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a hormone
produced by the adrenal glands that is used by the body to make the male sex hormone
testosterone. In one double-blind trial, 100 mg per day of DHEA was effective for improving
strength in older men,141 but 50 mg per day was ineffective in a similar study of
elderly men and women.142 DHEA has not been effective for women or younger men in
other studies.143 144
Electrolytes
Electrolyte replacement is not as important as
water intake in most athletic endeavors. It usually takes several hours of exercise in
warm climates before sodium depletion becomes significant and even longer for depletions of potassium, chloride, and magnesium to occur.145 However, the
presence of sodium in fluids will often make it easier to drink as well as to retain more
fluid.146 Athletes participating in several hours of exercise, especially in hot,
humid conditions, should use sodium-containing fluids to reduce the risk of
performance-diminishing and possibly dangerous declines in blood sodium levels.147
148
Glutamine
The amino acid glutamine appears to play a
role in several aspects of human physiology that might benefit athletes, including their
muscle function and immune system.149 Intense exercise lowers blood levels of
glutamine, which can remain persistently low with overtraining.150 Glutamine
supplementation raises levels of growth hormone at an intake of 2 grams per day,151
an effect of interest to some athletes because of the role of growth hormone in stimulating
muscle growth,152 and glutamine, given intravenously, was found to be more
effective than other amino acids at helping replenish muscle glycogen after
exercise.153 However, glutamine supplementation (30 mg per 2.2 pounds body weight)
has not improved performance of short-term, high-intensity exercise such as weightlifting or
sprint cycling by trained athletes,154 155 and no studies on endurance
performance or muscle growth have been conducted. Although the effects of glutamine
supplementation on immune function after
exercise have been inconsistent,156 157 double-blind trials giving
athletes glutamine (5 grams after intense, prolonged exercise, then again two hours later)
reported 81% having no subsequent infection
compared with 49% in the placebo group.158
Phosphatidylserine
In a double-blind study of active young men, supplementation with 750 of soybean-derived phosphatidylserine per day for 10 days increased
the time the men could exercise until exhaustion by approximately 25%.159 Longer
studies are needed to determine whether this effect would persist with continued
supplementation.
HMB
HMB (beta hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate) is a metabolite (breakdown product) of leucine, one of
the essential branched-chain amino
acids. Biochemical and animal research show that HMB has a role in protein synthesis
and might, therefore, improve muscle growth and overall body composition when given as a
supplement. However, double-blind human research suggests that HMB may only be effective when
combined with an exercise program in people who are not already highly trained athletes.
Double-blind trials found no effect of 3 to 6 grams per day of HMB on body weight, body fat,
or overall body composition in weight-training football players or other trained
athletes.160 161 162 163 164 However,
one double-blind study found that 3 grams per day of HMB increased the amount of body fat lost
by 70-year old adults who were participating in a strength-training program for the first
time.165 A double-blind study of young men with no strength-training experience
reported greater improvements in muscle mass (but not in percentage body fat) when HMB was
used in the amount of 17 mg per pound of body weight per day.166 However, another
group of men in the same study given twice as much HMB did not experience any changes in body
composition.
Inosine
Inosine is a nucleic acid derivative that
appears in exercising muscle tissue. Its role in various cellular functions has led to
suggestions that it may have ergogenic effects.167 However, three controlled
studies demonstrated no beneficial effects on performance and suggested that inosine may
impair some aspects of exercise performance.168 169 170
Therefore, use of inosine is discouraged.
Iron
Iron is important for an athlete because it is
a component of hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to muscle cells. Some athletes, especially
women, do not get enough iron in their diet. In addition, for reasons that are unclear,
endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, frequently have low body-iron
levels.171 172 173 However, anemia in athletes is often not due to iron deficiency
and may be a normal adaptation to the stress of exercise.174 Supplementing with
iron is usually unwise unless a deficiency has been diagnosed. People who experience undue
fatigue (an early warning sign of iron deficiency) should have their iron status evaluated by
a doctor. Athletes who are found to be iron deficient by a physician are typically given 100
mg per day until blood tests indicate they are no longer deficient. Supplementing
iron-deficient athletes with 100 to 200 mg per day of iron increased aerobic exercise
performance in some,175 176 177 though not all,178
179 double-blind studies. A recent double-blind trial found that iron-deficient
women who took 20 mg per day of iron for six weeks were able to perform knee strength
exercises for a longer time without muscle fatigue compared with those taking a
placebo.180
Protein
Certain amino acids, the building blocks for
protein, might be ergogenic aids as discussed in this article. However, while athletes have an
increased need for protein compared with non-exercising adults, the maximum amount of protein
suggested by many researchers—0.75 grams per pound of body weight per day—is
already in the diet of most athletes as long as they are not restricting calories. Preliminary
studies have suggested that supplementing with combinations of amino acids, typically along
with carbohydrate, immediately after exercise increases muscle protein
synthesis.181 182 183 184 185 However,
long-term controlled trials in young adult men,186 older men,187 and
women have found no benefits in strength gains from supplementing with amino acids after
weight training exercise.188
In one preliminary study, elderly men participating in a 12-week strength training program
took a liquid supplement containing 10 grams of protein (part of which was soy protein), 7
grams of carbohydrate, and 3 grams of fat either immediately following exercise or two hours
later.189 Men taking the supplement immediately following exercise experienced
significantly greater gains in muscle growth and lean body mass than those supplementing two
hours later, but strength gains were no different between the two groups. A controlled study
of female gymnasts found that adding 0.45 grams of soy protein (0.45 grams per pound of body
weight per day) to a diet that was adequate in protein during a four-month training program
did not improve lean body mass compared with a placebo.190 No research has compared
different sources of protein to see whether one source, such as soy protein, has a better or
more consistent effect on exercise recovery or the results of strength training.
Animal studies suggest that whey protein
can increase gains in lean body mass resulting from exercise.191 A controlled trial
found that six weeks of strength training while taking 1.2 grams of whey protein per 2.2 of
pounds body weight per day resulted in greater gains in lean body mass, but improved only one
out of four strength tests.192 Another controlled study found that people taking 20
grams per day of whey protein for three months performed better on a test of short-term
intense cycling exercise than people taking a similar amount of milk protein
(casein).193 However, a double-blind trial found that men taking 1.5 grams per 2.2
lbs of body weight per day of predigested whey protein for 12 weeks along with a strength
training exercise program gained only half as much lean body mass and had significantly
smaller increases in strength compared with men using a similar amount of predigested casein
along with strength training.194 A controlled study of HIV-infected women found
that adding whey protein to strength training exercise was no more effective than exercise
alone for increasing strength or improving body composition.195
Pyruvate
One group of researchers in two small, controlled trials has reported that 100 grams of a
combination of dihydroxyacetone and pyruvate
enhanced the endurance of certain muscles in untrained men.196 197 Three
controlled studies of untrained individuals using a combination of 6 to 10 grams per day of
pyruvate and an exercise program reported greater effects on weight loss and body fat compared
with those taking a placebo with the exercise program.198 199
200 However, in a study of healthy untrained women undergoing an exercise program,
supplementing with 5 grams of pyruvate twice a day had no effect on exercise
performance.201 Studies of pyruvate supplementation on exercise performance in
trained athletes have also failed to demonstrate any beneficial effect. Seven grams per day
did not improve aerobic exercise performance in cyclists,202 and an average of 15
grams per day did not improve anaerobic performance or body composition in football
players.203 More recently, evidence has appeared casting doubt on the ability of
high levels (an average exceeding 15 grams per day depending upon body weight) of pyruvate to
improve exercise capacity in a weight-lifting study.204
Zinc
Exercise increases zinc losses from the human
body, and severe zinc deficiency can compromise muscle function.205 206
Athletes who do not eat an optimal diet, especially those who are trying to control their
weight or use fad diets while exercising strenuously, may become deficient in zinc to the
extent that performance or health is compromised.207 208 One
double-blind trial in women found that 135 mg per day of zinc for two weeks improved one
measure of muscle strength.209 Whether these women were zinc deficient was not
determined in this study. A double-blind study of male athletes with low blood levels of zinc
found that 20 mg per day of zinc improved the flexibility of the red blood cells during
exercise, which could benefit blood flow to the muscles.210 No other studies of the
effects of zinc supplementation in exercising people have been done. A safe amount of zinc for
long-term use is 20 to 40 mg per day along with 1 to 2 mg of copper. Higher amounts should be
taken only under the supervision of a doctor.
Alpha-ketoglutarate
Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is used by cells
during growth and in healing from injuries and other wounds,211 and is especially important in
the healing of muscle tissue.212 A controlled study found that intravenous AKG
prevented a decline in protein synthesis in the muscles of patients recovering from
surgery.213 214 For these reasons, it has been speculated that oral AKG
supplements might help improve strength or muscle-mass gains by weight lifters, but no
research has been done to test this theory.
Arginine/Ornithine
At very high intakes (approximately 250 mg per 2.2 pounds of body weight), the amino acid arginine has increased growth hormone
levels,215 an effect that has interested body builders due to the role of growth
hormone in stimulating muscle growth.216 However, at lower amounts recommended by
some manufacturers (5 grams taken 30 minutes before exercise), arginine failed to increase
growth hormone release and may even have impaired the release of growth hormone in younger
adults.217 Large quantities (170 mg per 2.2 pounds of body weight per day) of a
related amino acid, ornithine, have also
raised growth hormone levels in some athletes.218 High amounts of arginine or
ornithine do not appear to raise levels of insulin,219 220 another
anabolic (bodybuilding) hormone. More modest amounts of a combination of these amino acids
have not had measurable effects on any anabolic hormone levels during exercise.221
222
Nonetheless, double-blind trials conducted by one group of researchers, combining weight
training with either arginine and ornithine (500 mg of each, twice per day, five times per
week) or placebo, found the amino-acid combination produced decreases in body
fat,223 resulted in higher total strength and lean body mass, and reduced evidence
of tissue breakdown after only five weeks.224
Aspartic acid
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid that participates in many biochemical reactions
relating to energy and protein. Preliminary, though conflicting, animal and human research
suggested a role for aspartic acid (in the form of potassium and magnesium aspartate) in
reducing fatigue during exercise.225 However, most studies have found aspartic acid
useless in improving either athletic performance or the body’s response to
exercise.226 227 228 229 230
B-complex vitamins
The B-complex vitamins are important for
athletes, because they are needed to produce energy from carbohydrates. Exercisers may have
slightly increased requirements for some of the B vitamins, including vitamin B2, vitamin B6, and vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid);231 athletic performance
can suffer if these slightly increased needs are not met.232 However, most athletes
obtain enough B vitamins from their diet without supplementation,233 and
supplementation studies have found no positive effect on performance measures for vitamin
B2,234 235 vitamin B3 (niacin),236 or vitamin B6.237 On
the contrary, large amounts of niacin have been shown to impair endurance
performance.238
Beta-sitosterol
Beta-sitosterol, (BSS) a natural sterol found
in many plants, has been shown in a double-blind trial to improve immune function in marathon runners when combined with
a related substance called B-sitosterol glucoside (BSSG).239 This implies that
beta-sitosterol might reduce infections in
athletes who engage in intensive exercise, though studies are still needed to prove this. The
usual amount of this combination used in research is 20 mg of BSS and 200 mcg of BSSG three
times per day.
Branched-chain amino acids
Some research has shown that supplemental
branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) (typically 10 to 20 grams per day) do not result in
meaningful changes in body composition,240 nor do they improve exercise performance
or enhance the effects of physical training.241 242 243
244 245 246 However, BCAA supplementation may be useful in special
situations, such as preventing muscle loss at high altitudes and prolonging endurance
performance in the heat.247 248 One controlled study gave triathletes 6
grams per day of BCAA for one month before a competition, then 3 grams per day from the day of
competition until a week following. Compared with a placebo, BCAA restored depleted glutamine
stores and immune factors that occur in elite athletes, and led to a reported one-third fewer
symptoms of infection during the period of supplementation.249 Studies by one group
of researchers suggest that BCAA supplementation may also improve exercise-induced declines in
some aspects of mental functioning.250 251 252
Bromelain
Bromelain is effective for shortening the
healing time of such injuries as sprains and strains.253 Typically, two to four
tablets or capsules are taken several times per day. Other uses of bromelain for sports and
fitness have not been studied.
Caffeine
Caffeine is present in many popular beverages
and appears to have an effect on fat
utilization.254 Caffeine does not benefit short-term, high-intensity exercise,
according to most,255 256 but not all, studies.257
258 However, controlled research, much of it double-blind, has shown that endurance
performance lasting at least 30 minutes does appear to be enhanced by caffeine in many
athletes.259 260 261 262 263
Inconsistency in reported effectiveness of caffeine in some trials can be explained by
differences in caffeine sensitivity among athletes, variable effects of caffeine on different
forms of exercise and under different environmental conditions, and effects of other dietary
components on the response to caffeine.264 265 Effective amounts of
caffeine appear to range from 1.4 to 2.7 mg per pound of body weight, taken one hour before
exercise.266 While this amount of caffeine could be obtained in 1 to 3 cups of
brewed coffee, most research has used caffeine supplements in capsules, and a recent study
found caffeine was not effective when taken as coffee.267 Caffeine consumption is
banned by the International Olympic Committee at levels that produce urinary concentrations of
12 mg per milliliter or more. These levels would require ingestion of considerably more than
2.5 mg per pound of body weight, or several cups of coffee, over a short period of
time.268
Calcium
Calcium is important for achieving and
maintaining optimum bone density. Some athletes, especially women with low body weight and/or
amenorrhea, are at risk for serious bone loss and fractures.269 270
Contributing to this risk are the diets of these athletes, which are frequently deficient in
calcium.271 All athletes should try to achieve the recommended intakes of calcium,
which are 1,300 mg per day for teenagers and 1,000 mg per day for adults. Other uses of
calcium for sports and fitness, including prevention or relief of sports-related muscle
cramps, have not been studied.
Chromium
Chromium, primarily in a form called chromium
picolinate, has been studied for its potential role in altering body composition. Preliminary
research in animals and humans suggested that chromium picolinate might increase fat loss and
lean muscle tissue gain when used with a weight-training program.272 273
274 However, most studies have found little to no effect of chromium on body
composition or strength.275 276 277 278
279 One group of researchers has reported significant reductions in body fat in
double-blind trials using 200 to 400 mcg per day of chromium for six to twelve weeks in
middle-aged adults,280 281 but the methods used in these studies have
been criticized.282
Chondroitin sulfate
Chondroitin sulfate, 800 to 1,200 mg per day,
is effective for reducing joint pain caused by osteoarthritis.283 284
Other uses of chondroitin sulfate for sports and fitness, including prevention of joint pain
or treatment of sports injuries, have not been studied.
CLA
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a slightly
altered form of the essential fatty acid linoleic acid. Animal research suggests an effect of
CLA supplementation on reducing body fat.285 286 Controlled human
research has reported that 5.6 to 7.2 grams per day of CLA produces only non-significant gains
in muscle size and strength in experienced and inexperienced weight-training
men.287 288 289 A double-blind study of a group of trained
men and women reported reduced body fat in the upper arm after 12 weeks of supplementation
with 1.8 grams per day of CLA.290 Further research using more accurate techniques
for measuring body composition is needed to confirm these findings.
Coenzyme Q10
Strenuous physical activity lowers blood levels of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10).291 However, the
effects of CoQ10 on how the healthy body responds to exercise have been inconsistent, with
several studies finding no improvement.292 293 294
295 A few studies, using at least four weeks of CoQ10 supplementation at 60 to 100 mg
per day, have reported improvements in measures of work capacity ranging from 3 to 29% in
sedentary people and from 4 to 32% in trained athletes.296 However, recent
double-blind and/or placebo-controlled trials in trained athletes, using performance measures
such as time to exhaustion and total performance, have found either no significant improvement
or significantly poorer results in those taking CoQ10.297 298
299
Gamma oryzanol
Gamma oryzanol is a mixture of sterols and
ferulic acid esters. Despite claims that gamma oryzanol or its components increase
testosterone levels, stimulate the release of endorphins, and promote the growth of lean
muscle tissue, research has provided little support for these claims and has also shown
gamma-oryzanol to be poorly absorbed.300 A recent nine-week, double-blind trial of
500 mg per day of gamma-oryzanol in weight lifters found no benefit compared with placebo in
strength performance gains or circulating anabolic hormones.301 However, a small,
double-blind trial using 30 mg per day of ferulic acid for eight weeks in trained weight
lifters did find significantly more weight gain (though lean body mass was not measured) and
increased strength in one of three measures compared with placebo.302
Glucosamine
Glucosamine sulfate, 1,500 mg per day, is effective for reducing joint pain caused by
osteoarthritis according to most studies.303 304 305 Whether
other forms of glucosamine, such as glucosamine hydrochloride, are as effective for joint pain
as glucosamine sulfate is unclear at this time, but studies have found some benefits from the
use of the hydrochloride form.306 307 Other uses of glucosamine for
sports and fitness, including prevention of joint pain or treatment of sports injuries, have
not been studied.
L-carnitine
L-carnitine, which is normally manufactured by
the human body, has been popular as a potential ergogenic aid (i.e., having the ability to
increase work capacity), because of its role in the conversion of fat to energy.308
However, while some studies have found that L-carnitine improves certain measures of muscle
physiology, research on the effects of 2 to 4 grams of L-carnitine per day on performance have
produced inconsistent results.309 L-carnitine may be effective in certain intense
exercise activities leading to exhaustion,310 but recent studies have reported that
L-carnitine supplementation does not benefit non-exhaustive or even marathon-level endurance
exercise,311 312 anaerobic performance,313 or lean body mass
in weight lifters.314
Magnesium
Magnesium deficiency can reduce exercise
performance and contribute to muscle cramps, but sub-optimal intake does not appear to be a
problem among most groups of athletes.315 316 Controlled trials suggest
that magnesium supplementation might improve some aspects of physiology important to sports
performance in some athletes,317 318 but controlled and double-blind
trials focusing on performance benefits of 212 to 500 mg per day of magnesium have been
inconsistent.319 320 321 322 323
324 It is possible that magnesium supplementation benefits only those who are deficient
or who are not highly trained athletes. 325 326
Medium chain triglycerides
Medium chain triglycerides (MCT) contain a
class of fatty acids found only in very small amounts in the diet; they are more rapidly
absorbed and burned as energy than are other fats.327 For this reason, athletes
have been interested in their use, especially during prolonged endurance exercise. However, no
effect on carbohydrate sparing or endurance exercise performance has been shown with moderate
amounts of MCT (30 to 45 grams over two to three hours).328 329
Controlled trials using very large amounts of MCT (approximately 85 grams over two hours) have
resulted in both increased and decreased performance,330 331 while a
double-blind trial found that 60 grams per day of MCT for two weeks had no effect on endurance
performance.332 A controlled study found increased performance when MCTs were added
to a 10% carbohydrate solution,333 but another study found no advantage of adding
MCT,334 and a third trial actually reported decreased performance with this
combination, probably due to gastrointestinal distress, in athletes using
MCTs.335
Octacosanol
Wheat germ oil, which contains a waxy substance known as octacosanol, has been investigated as an ergogenic
agent. Preliminary studies have suggested that octacosanol improves endurance, reaction time,
and other measures of exercise capacity.336 In another preliminary trial,
supplementation with 1 mg per day of octacosanol for eight weeks improved grip strength and
visual reaction time, but it had no effect on chest strength, auditory reaction time, or
endurance.337
Ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate
Ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate (OKG) is formed
from the amino acids ornithine and glutamine and is believed to facilitate muscle growth by
enhancing the body’s release of anabolic hormones. While this effect has been found in
studies on hospitalized patients and elderly people,338 339 no studies
on muscle growth in athletes using OKG have been published.
Methoxyisoflavone
Methoxyisoflavone is a member of the family flavonoids (isoflavones). In a U.S. Patent, the
developers of this substance claim, based on preliminary animal research, that it possesses
anabolic (muscle-building and bone-building) effects without the side effects seen with either
androgenic (male) hormones or estrogenic (female) hormones.340 A preliminary
controlled trial found that strength-training athletes who took 800 mg per day of
methoxyisoflavone for eight weeks experienced a significantly greater reduction in percentage
body fat than those who took a placebo.341 Double-blind research is needed to
confirm these findings. The U.S. patent also claims methoxyisoflavone reduces appetite and
lowers blood cholesterol levels. Whether this claim is true has not yet been demonstrated in
published scientific research.
Ribose
Ribose is a type of sugar used by the body to
make the energy-containing substance adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Intense exercise depletes
muscle cells of ATP as well as the ATP precursors made from ribose,342
343 though these deficits are typically replaced within minutes.344
Unpublished reports suggested that ribose supplementation might increase power during short,
intense bouts of exercise.345 346 However, in a double-blind study,
exercisers took four grams of ribose four times per day during a six-day strength-training
regimen, and no effects on muscle power or ATP recovery in exercised muscles were
found.347 In two other controlled studies, either 10 grams of ribose per day for
five days or 8 grams every 12 hours for 36 hours resulted in only minor improvements in some
measures of performance during repetitive sprint cycling.348 349
Are there any side effects or interactions?
Refer to the individual supplement for information about any side effects or interactions.
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